Distressed Leather Coats

Iron – china Ball Valve – china Electric actuator

Characteristics
Pure iron is a metal but is rarely found in this form on the surface of the earth because it oxidizes readily in the presence of oxygen and moisture. In order to obtain metallic iron, oxygen must be removed from naturally occurring ores by chemical reduction mainly of the iron ore hematite (Fe2O3) by carbon at high temperature. The properties of iron can be modified by alloying it with various other metals (and some non-metals, notably carbon and silicon) to form steels.
Nuclei of iron atoms have some of the highest binding energies per nucleon, surpassed only by the nickel isotope 62Ni. The universally most abundant of the highly stable nuclides is, however, 56Fe. This is formed by nuclear fusion in stars. Although a further tiny energy gain could be extracted by synthesizing 62Ni, conditions in stars are unsuitable for this process to be favoured. Elemental distribution on Earth greatly favours iron over nickel, and also presumably in supernova element production.
Iron (as Fe2+, ferrous ion) is a necessary trace element used by almost all living organisms. The only exceptions are several organisms that live in iron-poor environments and have evolved to use different elements in their metabolic processes, such as manganese instead of iron for catalysis, or hemocyanin instead of hemoglobin. Iron-containing enzymes, usually containing heme prosthetic groups, participate in catalysis of oxidation reactions in biology, and in transport of a number of soluble gases. See hemoglobin, cytochrome, and catalase.
Mechanical properties
Characteristic values of tensile strength (TS) and Brinell hardness (BH) of different forms of iron.
Material
TS (MPa)
BH (Brinell)
Iron whiskers
11000
Ausformed (hardened) steel
2930
8501200
Martensitic steel
2070
600
Bainitic steel
1380
400
Pearlitic steel
1200
350
Cold-worked iron
690
200
Small-grain iron
340
100
Iron containing dissolved carbon
140
40
Single crystal of pure iron
10
3
Mechanical properties of iron and its alloys are evaluated using a variety of tests, such as the Brinell test, Rockwell test, or tensile strength tests, among others; the results are so consistent that tests of iron are often used to relate the results of one test to another. Those measurements reveal that mechanical properties of iron crucially depend on purity: Purest research-purpose single crystals of iron are softer than aluminium. Addition of only 10 parts per million of carbon doubles their strength. The hardness increases rapidly with carbon content up to 0.2% and saturates at ~0.6%. The purest industrially produced iron (about 99.99% purity) has a hardness of 2030 Brinell.
Allotropes
Main article: Allotropes of iron
Iron represents perhaps the best-known example of allotropy in a metal. There are three allotropic forms of iron, known as , and .
As molten iron cools down it crystallizes at 1538 C into its allotrope, which has a body-centred cubic (bcc) crystal structure. As it cools further its crystal structure changes to face-centred cubic (fcc) at 1394 C, when it is known as -iron, or austenite. At 912 C the crystal structure again becomes bcc as -iron, or ferrite, is formed, and at 770 C (the Curie point, Tc) the iron becomes magnetic. As the iron passes through the Curie temperature there is no change in crystalline structure, but there is a change in “domain structure”, where each domain contains iron atoms with a particular electronic spin. In unmagnetized iron, all the electronic spins of the atoms within one domain are in the same direction; however, in neighbouring domains they point in various directions and thus cancel out. In magnetized iron, the electronic spins of all the domains are all aligned, so that the magnetic effects of neighbouring domains reinforce each other. Although each domain contains billions of atoms, they are very small, about 10 microns across.
Iron is of greatest importance when mixed with certain other metals and with carbon to form steels. There are many types of steels, all with different properties; and an understanding of the properties of the allotropes of iron is key to the manufacture of good quality steels.
Alpha iron, also known as ferrite, is the most stable form of iron at normal temperatures. It is a fairly soft metal that can dissolve only a small concentration of carbon (no more than 0.021% by mass at 910 C).
Above 912 C and up to 1400 C -iron undergoes a phase transition from body-centred cubic to the face-centred cubic configuration of -iron, also called austenite. This is similarly soft and metallic but can dissolve considerably more carbon (as much as 2.04% by mass at 1146 C). This form of iron is used in the type of stainless steel used for making cutlery, and hospital and food-service equipment.
Occurrence
See also: Category:Iron minerals
The red appearance of this water is due to ferric ions, iron(III) or Fe3+, in the rocks.
Iron is the sixth most abundant element in the Universe, formed as the final act of nucleosynthesis, by silicon fusing in massive stars. While it makes up about 5% of the Earth’s crust, the Earth’s core is believed to consist largely of an iron-nickel alloy constituting 35% of the mass of the Earth as a whole. Iron is consequently the most abundant element on Earth, but only the fourth most abundant element in the Earth’s crust. Most of the iron in the crust is found combined with oxygen as iron oxide minerals such as hematite and magnetite.
About 1 in 20 meteorites consist of the unique iron-nickel minerals taenite (3580% iron) and kamacite (9095% iron). Although rare, iron meteorites are the major form of natural metallic iron on the Earth’s surface.
The red color of the surface of Mars is thought to derive from an iron oxide-rich regolith.
Isotopes
Main article: Isotopes of iron
Naturally occurring iron consists of four stable isotopes: 5.845% of 54Fe, 91.754% of 56Fe, 2.119% of 57Fe and 0.282% of 58Fe. The nuclide 54Fe is predicted to undergo double beta decay, but this process had never been observed experimentally for these nuclei, and only the lower limit on the half-life was established: T1/2>3.11022 years. 60Fe is an extinct radionuclide of long half-life (2.6 million years).
Much of the past work on measuring the isotopic composition of Fe has centred on determining 60Fe variations due to processes accompanying nucleosynthesis (i.e., meteorite studies) and ore formation. In the last decade however, advances in mass spectrometry technology have allowed the detection and quantification of minute, naturally occurring variations in the ratios of the stable isotopes of iron. Much of this work has been driven by the Earth and planetary science communities, although applications to biological and industrial systems are beginning to emerge.
The most abundant iron isotope 56Fe is of particular interest to nuclear scientists. A common misconception is that this isotope represents the most stable nucleus possible, and that it thus would be impossible to perform fission or fusion on 56Fe and still liberate energy. This is not true, as both 62Ni and 58Fe are more stable, being the most stable nuclei. However, since 56Ni is much more easily produced from lighter nuclei in the alpha process in nuclear reactions in supernovae (see silicon burning process), nickel-56 (14 alpha particles) is the endpoint of fusion chains inside extremely massive stars, since addition of another alpha would result in zinc-60, which requires a great deal more energy. This nickel-56, which has a half-life of about 6 days, is therefore made in quantity in these stars, but soon decays by two successive positron emissions within supernova decay products in the supernova remnant gas cloud, to first radioactive cobalt-56, and then stable iron-56. This last nuclide is therefore common in the universe, relative to other stable metals of approximately the same atomic weight.
In phases of the meteorites Semarkona and Chervony Kut a correlation between the concentration of 60Ni, the daughter product of 60Fe, and the abundance of the stable iron isotopes could be found which is evidence for the existence of 60Fe at the time of formation of the solar system. Possibly the energy released by the decay of 60Fe contributed, together with the energy released by decay of the radionuclide 26Al, to the remelting and differentiation of asteroids after their formation 4.6 billion years ago. The abundance of 60Ni present in extraterrestrial material may also provide further insight into the origin of the solar system and its early history. Of the stable isotopes, only 57Fe has a nuclear spin (1/2).
Chemistry and compounds
See also: Category:Iron compounds
Iron forms compounds mainly in the +2 and +3 oxidation states. Traditionally, iron(II) compounds have been called ferrous, and iron(III) compounds ferric. There are many compounds in each of the oxidation states; representative examples would include iron(II) sulfate (FeSO4) and iron(III) chloride (FeCl3). There are also numerous examples of compounds that contain iron atoms in both of these oxidation states, such as magnetite and prussian blue. The ferrate anion [FeO4]2 contains an iron(VI) centre, its highest known oxidation state, and is present, for example in potassium ferrate (K2FeO4). There are numerous organometallic compounds (such as iron pentacarbonyl) that contain formally zerovalent (or lower) iron.
History
This section requires expansion.
The symbol for Mars has been used since ancient times to represent iron.
The Delhi iron pillar is an example of the iron extraction and processing methodologies of India. The iron pillar at Delhi has withstood corrosion for the last 1600 years.
Main article: History of ferrous metallurgy
The first wrought iron used by mankind during prehistory came from meteorites. The smelting of iron in bloomeries began in the second millennium BC. Artifacts from smelted iron occur in India from 18001200 BC, and in the Levant from about 1500 BC (suggesting smelting in Anatolia or the Caucasus).
Cast iron was first produced in China about 550 BC, but not in Europe until the medieval period[citation needed]. During the medieval period, means were found in Europe of producing wrought iron from cast iron (in this context known as pig iron) using finery forges. For all these processes, charcoal was required as fuel.
Steel (with smaller carbon content than pig iron but more than wrought iron) was first produced in antiquity. New methods of producing it by carburizing bars of iron in the cementation process were devised in the 17th century AD. In the Industrial Revolution, new methods of producing bar iron without charcoal were devised and these were later applied to produce steel. In the late 1850s, Henry Bessemer invented a new steelmaking process, involving blowing air through molten pig iron, to produce mild steel. This and other 19th century and later processes have led to wrought iron no longer being produced.
Industrial production
Iron ore pellets from Kiruna, Sweden.
See also: Iron ore
The production of iron or steel is a process unless the desired final product is cast iron. The first stage is to produce pig iron in a blast furnace. The second is to make wrought iron or steel from pig iron by a further process.
Blast furnace
Main article: Blast furnace
Ninety percent of all mining of metallic ores is for the extraction of iron. Industrially, iron is produced starting from iron ores, principally hematite (nominally Fe2O3) and magnetite (Fe3O4) by a carbothermic reaction (reduction with carbon) in a blast furnace at temperatures of about 2000 C. In a blast furnace, iron ore, carbon in the form of coke, and a flux such as limestone (which is used to remove impurities in the ore which would otherwise clog the furnace with solid material) are fed into the top of the furnace, while a blast of heated air is forced into the furnace at the bottom.
Iron output in 2005
In the furnace, the coke reacts with oxygen in the air blast to produce carbon monoxide:
2 C + O2 2 CO
The carbon monoxide reduces the iron ore (in the chemical equation below, hematite) to molten iron, becoming carbon dioxide in the process:
3 CO + Fe2O3 2 Fe + 3 CO2
The flux is present to melt impurities in the ore, principally silicon dioxide sand and other silicates. Common fluxes include limestone (principally calcium carbonate) and dolomite (calcium-magnesium carbonate). Other fluxes may be used depending on the impurities that need to be removed from the ore. In the heat of the furnace the limestone flux decomposes to calcium oxide (quicklime):
CaCO3 CaO + CO2
Then calcium oxide combines with silicon dioxide to form a slag.
CaO + SiO2 CaSiO3
The slag melts in the heat of the furnace. In the bottom of the furnace, the molten slag floats on top of the denser molten iron, and apertures in the side of the furnace are opened to run off the iron and the slag separately. The iron once cooled, is called pig iron, while the slag can be used as a material in road construction or to improve mineral-poor soils for agriculture.[citation needed]
How iron was extracted in the 19th century
This heap of iron ore pellets will be used in steel production.
In 2005, approximately 1,544 million metric tons of iron ore were produced worldwide. According to the British Geological Survey, China was the top producer of iron ore with at least one quarter world share, followed by Brazil, Australia and India.
Further processes
Main articles: Steelmaking and Ironworks
Pig iron is not pure iron, but has 45% carbon dissolved in it with small amounts of other impurities like sulfur, magnesium, phosphorus and manganese. As the carbon is the major impurity, the iron (pig iron) becomes brittle and hard. This form of iron is used to cast articles in foundries such as stoves, pipes, radiators, lamp-posts and rails.
Alternatively pig iron may be made into steel (with up to about 2% carbon) or wrought iron (commercially pure iron). Various processes have been used for this, including finery forges, puddling furnaces, Bessemer converters, open hearth furnaces, basic oxygen furnaces, and electric arc furnaces. In all cases, the objective is to oxidize some or all of the carbon, together with other impurities. On the other hand, other metals may be added to make alloy steels.
The hardness of the steel depends upon its carbon content, the higher the proportion of carbon, the greater the hardness and the lesser the ductility. The properties of the steel can also be changed by tempering it. To harden the steel, it is heated to red hot and then cooled by quenching it in the water. It becomes harder and more brittle. This steel is then heated to a required temperature and allowed to cool. The steel thus formed is less brittle.
Applications
Elemental iron
Iron is the most widely used of all the metals, accounting for 95% of worldwide metal production. Its low cost and high strength make it indispensable in engineering applications such as the construction of machinery and machine tools, automobiles, the hulls of large ships, and structural components for buildings. Since pure iron is quite soft, it is most commonly used in the form of steel. Commercially available iron is classified based on purity and the abundance of additives. Pig iron has 3.54.5% carbon and contains varying amounts of contaminants such as sulfur, silicon and phosphorus. Pig iron is not a saleable product, but rather an intermediate step in the production of cast iron and steel from iron ore. Cast iron contains 24% carbon, 16% silicon, and small amounts of manganese. Contaminants present in pig iron that negatively affect material properties, such as sulfur and phosphorus, have been reduced to an acceptable level. It has a melting point in the range of 14201470 K, which is lower than either of its two main components, and makes it the first product to be melted when carbon and iron are heated together. Its mechanical properties vary greatly, dependent upon the form carbon takes in the alloy. “White” cast irons contain their carbon in the form of cementite, or iron carbide. This hard, brittle compound dominates the mechanical properties of white cast irons, rendering them hard, but unresistant to shock. The broken surface of a white cast iron is full of fine facets of the broken carbide, a very pale, silvery, shiny material, hence the appellation. In grey iron the carbon exists free as fine flakes of graphite, and also renders the material brittle due to the stress-raising nature of the sharp edged flakes of graphite. A newer variant of grey iron, referred to as ductile iron is specially treated with trace amounts of magnesium to alter the shape of graphite to spheroids, or nodules, vastly increasing the toughness and strength of the material.
The fining process of smelting iron ore to make wrought iron from pig iron, with the right illustration displaying men working a blast furnace, from the Tiangong Kaiwu encyclopedia, published in 1637 by Song Yingxing.
Wrought iron contains less than 0.25% carbon. It is a tough, malleable product, but not as fusible as pig iron. If honed to an edge, it loses it quickly. Wrought iron is characterized by the presence of fine fibres of slag entrapped in the metal. Wrought iron is more corrosion resistant than steel. It has been almost completely replaced by mild steel for traditional “wrought iron” products and blacksmithing. Mild steel corrodes more readily that wrought iron, but is cheaper and more widely available. Carbon steel contains 2.0% carbon or less, with small amounts of manganese, sulfur, phosphorus, and silicon. Alloy steels contain varying amounts of carbon as well as other metals, such as chromium, vanadium, molybdenum, nickel, tungsten, etc. Their alloy content raises their cost, and so they are usually only employed for specialist uses. Recent developments in ferrous metallurgy have produced a growing range of microalloyed steels, also termed ‘HSLA’ or high-strength, low alloy steels, containing tiny additions to produce high strengths and often spectacular toughness at minimal cost.
The main disadvantage of iron and steel is that pure iron, and most of its alloys, suffer badly from rust if not protected in some way. Painting, galvanization, passivation, plastic coating and bluing are all used to protect iron from rust by excluding water and oxygen or by sacrificial protection.
Iron compounds
Iron chloride hexahydrate
Iron oxides (FeO, Fe3O4, and Fe2O3) are ores used for iron production (see bloomery and blast furnace). They are also used as a catalyst in the Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Boosters, and in the production of magnetic storage media in computers. They are often mixed with other compounds, and retain their magnetic properties in solution.
Iron(II) acetate (Fe(CH3CO2)2 (ferrous acetate) is used as a mordant in the dyeing of cloth and leather, and as a wood preservative.
Iron(III) ammonium citrate (C6H5+4yFexNyO7) is used in blueprints.
Iron(III) arsenate (FeAsO4) is used in insecticides.
Iron(III) chloride (FeCl3) is used in water purification and sewage treatment, in the dyeing of cloth, as a colouring agent in paints, as an additive in animal feed, and as an etchant for copper in the manufacture of printed circuit boards.
Iron(III) chromate (Fe2(CrO4)3) is a yellow pigment for paints and ceramics.
Iron(III) hydroxide (Fe(OH)3) is used as a brown pigment for rubber and in water purification systems.
Iron(III) phosphate (FePO4) is used in fertilizers and as an additive in human and animal food.
Iron(II) gluconate (Fe(C6H11O7)2) is used as a dietary supplement in iron pills.
Iron(II) oxalate (FeC2O4) is used as yellow pigment for paints, plastics, glass and ceramics, and in photography.
Iron(II) sulfate (FeSO4) is used in water purification and sewage treatment systems, as a catalyst in the production of ammonia, as an ingredient in fertilizer, herbicide, and moss killer, as an additive in animal feed, in wood preservative, and as an additive to flour to increase nutritional iron levels. Experimental iron fertilization of areas of the ocean using iron(II) sulfate has proven successful in increasing plankton growth.
Iron-based coordination complexes are being increasingly studied for Fisher-Tropsch and transfer-hydrogenation catalysis due to relatively high abundance and low cost of the metal. Specifically, iron analogues of existing ruthenium and osmium-based catalysts are being tested for activity because iron is isoelectronic with the more expensive second- and third-row transition metals and therefore exhibits similar reactivity. The use of iron compounds in organic synthesis is mainly for the reduction of nitro compounds. Additionally, iron has been used for desulfurizations, reduction of aldehydes, and the deoxygenation of amine oxides.
Biological role
Structure of Heme b
Main article: Human iron metabolism
Iron is essential to nearly all known organisms. In cells, iron is generally stored in the centre of metalloproteins, because “free” iron (which binds non-specifically to many cellular components) can catalyse production of toxic free radicals. Iron deficiency can lead to iron deficiency anemia.
In animals, plants, and fungi, iron is often the metal ion incorporated into the heme complex. Heme is an essential component of cytochrome proteins, which mediate redox reactions, and of oxygen carrier proteins such as hemoglobin, myoglobin, and leghemoglobin. Inorganic iron also contributes to redox reactions in the iron-sulfur clusters of many enzymes, such as nitrogenase (involved in the synthesis of ammonia from nitrogen and hydrogen) and hydrogenase. Non-heme iron proteins include the enzymes methane monooxygenase (oxidizes methane to methanol), ribonucleotide reductase (reduces ribose to deoxyribose; DNA biosynthesis), hemerythrins (oxygen transport and fixation in marine invertebrates) and purple acid phosphatase (hydrolysis of phosphate esters).
Iron distribution is heavily regulated in mammals, partly because iron has a high potential for biological toxicity. Iron distribution is also regulated because many bacteria require iron, so restricting its availability to bacteria (generally by sequestering it inside cells) can help to prevent or limit infections. This is probably the reason for the relatively low amounts of iron in mammalian milk. A major component of this regulation is the protein transferrin, which binds iron absorbed from the duodenum and carries it in the blood to cells.
Dietary sources
Good sources of dietary iron include red meat, fish, poultry, lentils, beans, leaf vegetables, tofu, chickpeas, black-eyed peas, fortified bread, and fortified breakfast cereals. Iron in low amounts is found in molasses, teff and farina. Iron in meat (haem iron) is more easily absorbed than iron in vegetables, but heme/hemoglobin from red meat has effects which may increase the likelihood of colorectal cancer.
Iron provided by dietary supplements is often found as iron (II) fumarate, although iron sulfate is cheaper and is absorbed equally well. Elemental iron, despite being absorbed to a much smaller extent (stomach acid is sufficient to convert some of it to ferrous iron), is often added to foods such as breakfast cereals or “enriched” wheat flour (where it is listed as “reduced iron” in the list of ingredients). Iron is most available to the body when chelated to amino acids – iron in this form is ten to fifteen times more bioavailable than any other, and is also available for use as a common iron supplement. Often the amino acid chosen for this purpose is the cheapest and most common amino acid, glycine, leading to “iron glycinate” supplements. The RDA for iron varies considerably based on age, gender, and source of dietary iron (heme-based iron has higher bioavailability). Infants may require iron supplements if they are bottle-fed cow’s milk. Blood donors and pregnant women are at special risk of low iron levels and are often advised to supplement their iron intake.[citation needed]
Regulation of uptake
Iron uptake is tightly regulated by the human body, which has no regulated physiological means of excreting iron. Only small amounts of iron are lost daily due to mucosal and skin epithelial cell sloughing, so control of iron levels is mostly by regulating uptake. Regulation of iron uptake is impaired in some people as a result of a genetic defect that maps to the HLA-H gene region on chromosome 6. In these people, excessive iron intake can result in iron overload disorders, such as hemochromatosis. Many people have a genetic susceptibility to iron overload without realizing it or being aware of a family history of the problem. For this reason, it is advised that people do not take iron supplements unless they suffer from iron deficiency and have consulted a doctor. Hemochromatosis is estimated to cause disease in between 0.3 and 0.8% of Caucasians.
MRI finds that iron accumulates in the hippocampus of the brains of those with Alzheimer’s disease and in the substantia nigra of those with Parkinson disease.
Precautions
Main article: Iron poisoning
Large amounts of ingested iron can cause excessive levels of iron in the blood. High blood levels of free ferrous iron react with peroxides to produce free radicals, which are highly reactive and can damage DNA, proteins, lipids, and other cellular components. Thus, iron toxicity occurs when there is free iron in the cell, which generally occurs when iron levels exceed the capacity of transferrin to bind the iron. Damage to the cells of the gastrointestinal tract can also prevent them from regulating iron absorption leading to further increases in blood levels. Iron typically damages cells in the heart, liver and elsewhere, which can cause significant adverse effects, including coma, metabolic acidosis, shock, liver failure, coagulopathy, adult respiratory distress syndrome, long-term organ damage, and even death. Humans experience iron toxicity above 20 milligrams of iron for every kilogram of mass, and 60 milligrams per kilogram is considered a lethal dose. Overconsumption of iron, often the result of children eating large quantities of ferrous sulfate tablets intended for adult consumption, is one of the most common toxicological causes of death in children under six. The Dietary Reference Intake (DRI) lists the Tolerable Upper Intake Level (UL) for adults as 45 mg/day. For children under fourteen years old the UL is 40 mg/day.
The medical management of iron toxicity is complex, and can include use of a specific chelating agent called deferoxamine to bind and expel excess iron from the body.
See also
El Mutn in Bolivia, where 20% of the world’s accessible iron and magnesium is located.
Iron Age
Iron fertilization – Proposed fertilization of oceans to stimulate phytoplankton growth.
Iron (metaphor)
Iron in mythology
List of countries by iron production
Pelletising – Process of creation of iron ore pellets.
Rustproof iron
Specht Building – A historic landmark in Omaha, Nebraska utilizing an iron facade.
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^ “Dietary Reference Intakes: Elements” (PDF). The National Academies. 2001. http://www.iom.edu/Object.File/Master/7/294/0.pdf. Retrieved 2008-05-21. 
^ “Iron Deficiency Anemia” (web page). MediResource. http://bodyandhealth.canada.com/condition_info_details.asp?disease_id=274. Retrieved 2008-12-17. 
^ Kumar, Vinay; Abbas, Abul K; Fausto, Nelson (2005). “Anemia”. Robbins and Cotran: Pathologic Basis of Disease, 7th edition. Elsevier Saunders. http://www.mdconsult.com/das/book/body/90234262-4/0/1249/121.html. Retrieved 2008-03-14. 
^ Durupt S, Durieu I, Nove-Josserand R, et al. (2000). “Hereditary hemochromatosis”. Rev Med Interne 21 (11): 96171. doi:10.1016/S0248-8663(00)00252-6. PMID 11109593. 
^ Brar S, Henderson D, Schenck J, Zimmerman EA. (2009). Iron accumulation in the substantia nigra of patients with Alzheimer disease and parkinsonism. Arch Neurol. 66(3):371-4. PMID 19273756
^ a b Cheney K, Gumbiner C, Benson B, Tenenbein M (1995). “Survival after a severe iron poisoning treated with intermittent infusions of deferoxamine”. J Toxicol Clin Toxicol 33 (1): 616. doi:10.3109/15563659509020217. PMID 7837315. 
^ a b “Toxicity, Iron”. Emedicine. http://www.emedicine.com/emerg/topic285.htm. Retrieved 2006-06-19. 
^ Tenenbein M (1996). “Benefits of parenteral deferoxamine for acute iron poisoning”. J Toxicol Clin Toxicol 34 (5): 4859. doi:10.3109/15563659609028005. PMID 8800185. 
Books
Doulias PT, Christoforidis S, Brunk UT, Galaris D. Endosomal and lysosomal effects of desferrioxamine: protection of HeLa cells from hydrogen peroxide-induced DNA damage and induction of cell-cycle arrest. Free Radic Biol Med. 2003;35:719-28.
H. R. Schubert, History of the British Iron and Steel Industry … to 1775 AD (Routledge, London, 1957)
R. F. Tylecote, History of Metallurgy (Institute of Materials, London 1992).
R. F. Tylecote, ‘Iron in the Industrial Revolution’ in J. Day and R. F. Tylecote, The Industrial Revolution in Metals (Institute of Materials 1991), 200-60.
External links
Look up iron in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Iron
WebElements.com Iron
It’s Elemental Iron
The Most Tightly Bound Nuclei
Crystal structure of iron
Chemistry in its element podcast (MP3) from the Royal Society of Chemistry’s Chemistry World: Iron
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Ar
K
Ca
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New Jackets For Fall

Fall and winter may have brought out long peacoats and trenches before, but not this year. One of the most sought-after pieces for the upcoming season will be the shrunken jacket, in a variety of styles. The difference between these new, tinier versions of your traditional autumn and winter favorites is their length; cuts are the same as traditional coats, but they hit slightly above the waist and often tie or button under the chest. The beauty of these new pieces is that they provide coverage in colder months without sacrificing sexiness or femininity.

The perfect jacket is one of the most important elements of your wardrobe, and with so many shapes and fabrics available this fall, it would be a crime to choose just one. The ever-present denim jacket is back with a new vengeance. Instead of the washes of last season or bulkiness of years before, this season’s denim jacket is soft, body-conscious and far more feminine than the traditional denim jacket. Corduroy and leather are back again, cropped and ready to be worn over anything from your favorite dress to distressed jeans.

A new take on an old favorite is safe, but take advantage on the amazing new fabrics and styles the end of the year has to offer. Brocade is big this season and some of the most sought-after new jackets are made of the rich, detailed design. Many of these brocaded, boudoir-style jackets are trimmed in rich velvet or lace piping and can be paired with tweed trousers of you favorite jeans. Many of these new jackets are cut at the hip but some are reaching even higher-cropped just below the chest (H & M). Made in rich, new fabrics like tweed and velvet, these jackets have mixed a traditionally matronly fabric with a cut and cling that makes it youthful and sexy. Even faux fur and metallic finishes are adorning the newest trend (Allen B. by Allen Schwartz).

Getting short isn’t the only new addition to a cold weather favorite. Sleeves are getting revamped this season, retro-style. Traditional coat fabrics like houndstooth are being used in a new way. Bell sleeves (think bellbottom sleeves, cut below the elbow) mix cropped length with a traditional fabric and throwback to 70s style (Banana Republic). You’ll also see a mini version of the military jacket this season; a cropped, girlie take on the long, heavy style, adorned with brass buttons and zippers (Bebe).

The beauty of these new jackets is the versatility they bring to your own style: mix them with denim, dresses, skirts and trousers. Since there isn’t one specific style or fabric that will reign this fall, all styles and sizes can take advantage of a new take on an old favorite.

Paint The Town Red In Sexy Cowboy Boots

It’s Friday evening and you’re standing in front of your closet trying to decide what to put on for the night in town with your girlfriends. You glance at the clock and realized that several minutes passed and you’re not closer to your goal of finding the perfect ensemble that will knock all the cute guys off their feet. You feel the pressure but the more you think about it, the more panicked and frustrated you become so you just settle on wearing something you’ve worn numerous times just because you know it worked in the past.

Is this scene all too familiar? Do you think you’ve mixed and matched your wardrobe enough times that you’ve explored all possible combinations? Buying new clothes might be the obvious solution but while that may be right, why don’t you treat yourself with a new pair of rocking Old Gringo boots, too? These will go well with your new clothes and give your older garments a fresh look.

Before heading out of the house or turning on your laptop to embark on a much-deserved shopping spree, you first need to find out what kinds of clothes will work with cowboy boots.

Blouses. Most blouses look good with boots. Crocheted and knitted pieces, peasant style and lace tops, button-up and white t-shirts (items that should have found their way into your wardrobe by now) are some examples.

Jackets. Jackets are great fashion accents and are especially helpful in warding off the chill when the temperature drops. Wear denim or a leather jacket over any of the blouses cited earlier for a modified appearance.

Coats. A trench coat can add a twist to your own unique style. It can also help complete the overall look.

Casual dresses. Think of Kate Bosworth or Sienna Miller in laid-back and unstructured knee-length dresses made of light and breathable fabrics in white or any color that will suit the season. Now imagine them wearing a pair of cowboy boots – you get a look that is relaxed yet incredibly stylish.

Ankle-length skirts. A blouse, an ankle-length skirt and a pair shoes or sandals might have definitely worked in the past but it may not be the best way to go if you’re looking for the classy and fresh look. Slip into a pair of cowboy boots to give your attire a boost of sophistication.

Jeans. Cowboy footwear will go well with your favorite pair of bootleg, flare, and skinny jeans. Whether the pants you wear is distressed, medium washed, denim, or dark, you can’t go wrong.

Although it seems that footwear like the Old Gringo boots can be worn with almost anything, here are some words of caution before you coordinate your outfits for the next month or so. Depending on the occasion, you can wear mini skirts with your boots. Consider the dress code as well as the people who will be there. While you don’t want to stick out as a sore thumb, you equally need to avoid the possibility of looking trashy. Pairing shorts, sweaters, sweatshirts, or khakis with cowboy boots is a big no-no. These items just don’t mix and match. 

You can hardly go wrong with the style of cowboy boots to buy but if your budget allows you to get only a pair, get them in neutral colors like brown or black. As for the length, opt for a pair that is almost knee-high with small heels so your legs will look long and slender.

Now, go coordinate your closet and be fabulous!

Cropped Jackets And The Layered Look – The New Way To Be Stylishly Warm In Winter

Fall and winter may have brought out long peacoats and trenches before, but not this year. One of the most sought-after pieces for the upcoming season will be the shrunken jacket, in a variety of styles. The difference between these new, tinier versions of your traditional autumn and winter favorites is their length; cuts are the same as traditional coats, but they hit slightly above the waist and often tie or button under the chest. The beauty of these new pieces is that they provide coverage in colder months without sacrificing sexiness or femininity.

The perfect jacket is one of the most important elements of your wardrobe, and with so many shapes and fabrics available this fall, it would be a crime to choose just one. The ever-present denim jacket is back with a new vengeance. Instead of the washes of last season or bulkiness of years before, this season’s denim jacket is soft, body-conscious and far more feminine than the traditional denim jacket. Corduroy and leather are back again, cropped and ready to be worn over anything from your favorite dress to distressed jeans.

A new take on an old favorite is safe, but take advantage on the amazing new fabrics and styles the end of the year has to offer. Brocade is big this season and some of the most sought-after new jackets are made of the rich, detailed design. Many of these brocaded, boudoir-style jackets are trimmed in rich velvet or lace piping and can be paired with tweed trousers of you favorite jeans. Many of these new jackets are cut at the hip but some are reaching even higher—cropped just below the chest (H & M). Made in rich, new fabrics like tweed and velvet, these jackets have mixed a traditionally matronly fabric with a cut and cling that makes it youthful and sexy. Even faux fur and metallic finishes are adorning the newest trend (Allen B. by Allen Schwartz).

Getting short isn’t the only new addition to a cold weather favorite. Sleeves are getting revamped this season, retro-style. Traditional coat fabrics like houndstooth are being used in a new way. Bell sleeves (think bellbottom sleeves, cut below the elbow) mix cropped length with a traditional fabric and throwback to 70s style (Banana Republic). You’ll also see a mini version of the military jacket this season; a cropped, girlie take on the long, heavy style, adorned with brass buttons and zippers (Bebe).

The beauty of these new jackets is the versatility they bring to your own style: mix them with denim, dresses, skirts and trousers. Since there isn’t one specific style or fabric that will reign this fall, all styles and sizes can take advantage of a new take on an old favorite.

Stitch, London Menswear Trade Show 30 June & 01 July 2010

Stitch held the only dedicated menswear trade show in the UK, bringing together an eclectic mix of designers (new and established) under one roof. This year Stitch divided the show in to 4 key categories:

DENIM – Jeans brands and those in tune with the spirit of denim.

Here we see Full Circle offering an extensive ready to wear collection. Trousers include the drop crotch look with bulky side pockets and faded denims. Shirts include the classic denim, checks ranging from the bold and large buffalo  in red or blue to the more tonal tartan in muted blues and greys.

EDGE – Innovative brands that deliver classic or contemporary style

Original founders of All Saints, Kait Bolongaro and Stuart Trevor moved on to create Bolongaro Trevor, a vintage inspired label. Their new  collection includes leather jackets treated with aniline dye to create soft supple leather – One with fine corduroy side panels and a zip embellished front to create texture. Other jackets in poplin are a twist on the union jack design in the traditional red, white and blue or a more modern red, pale denim and dark blue demin.  Splashes of acid yellows, deep pink and greens brighten up the main collection of shirts and dark gothic t-shirts with afterlife and death inspired prints. Knitwear is super fine cotton – one black style decorated with safety pins around the neckline.

ENERGY – Authentic brands inspired by sport, music and performance.

In 2007, brothers Scott and Troy Thompson’s passion for rock and roll sparked the idea of creating a tee –shirt clothing brand inspired by music. They have 3 collections : The Immortals, In Chains and The 27 Club. All their t-shirts are heavily embellished with prints and crystals front and back in distressed pre shrunk cotton. Colours are faded and washed out blacks, dark browns, dark blues, whites, purple and red.

Their newest line  “the 27 club” was launched on Scott’s 27th birthday and is a memorial to all the legendary musicians who died at the age of 27 – the more famous being Janis Joplin, Brian Jones, Jimi Hendrix, Jim Morrison and  Kurt Cobain.  All tees are embellished with the number 27.

The “In Chains” collection was inspired by their own jewellery line with large Swarovski crystals making rosary designs on the front with printed religious images on the back.

The “Immortals” was made to relive the days when rock stars lived like nothing could kill them, showing compositions including images of skulls and skeletons

The brothers have also put thought in the construction of the t-shirt – shortening the length slightly to show off the belt and jeans pockets, tightening the garment at the chest and arms to prevent the baggy look and using finer and softer cotton.

For you rock & roll softies, they even make long sleeved thermal tees.

And if you still don’t have enough bling, try out their motorcycle inspired jewellery line of rosaries, pendants, belts and buckles.

A portion of every shirt they sell goes to music inspired charities.

VISION – A showcase of emerging international talent in menswear.

Graduating from Central St. Martins in 2001, Satyen Kumar worked for 4 seasons on the mainline collection at Versace in Milan before deciding to go it alone in 2006. The foundation of his brand aesthetic is the modern hybrid for eccentric English playboys with a combination of tailored casual wear fused with tuxedo style dressing. The trousers are slim and tailored with a casual twist created by  a double row of elasticised jogging style hems, whilst jackets are panelled at the front with contrasting fabric. Some of the designs have an almost jockey like style with red satin, purple and petrol blue jogging style tailored pants, white shirt with red and blue geometric sections and a two toned petrol blue shirt. This designer is not afraid of colour with his flashy patterned suit in oranges/yellows/reds and blues matched with a pale green diaphanous long sleeved t-shirt. Definitely living up to the eccentric English playboy name.

Satyenkumar helps to boost national economy and ensure quality and attention to detail by only ever manufacturing garments in the UK, and sources 90% of materials from British suppliers.

SPECIALISTS

Specialising in knitwear, Am Golhar gained her expertise of high quality yarns such as alpaca and cashmere from Central St. Martins.  Knitwear is not only restricted to the tops but knitted jogging pants as well. A few leather pieces – jogging pants and jackets complement the collection.

E One Six London

Specialising in luxury shirts , new label E One Six London’s first collection was inspired by the lifestyle of modern man on the move – designed to take him from the office to the bar to home. Smart enough to sharpen up a suit yet relaxed enough to look great with jeans and chinos.

Colours are crisp whites and soft blues and pinks. Designs include plain fronts with striped backs. The fabric and shirt are produced in a single European factory thus reducing carbon footprint and ensuring quality consistency. At least 35 separate parts go in to constructing one shirt, taking a skilled worker 80 minutes to make a shirt from start to finish.

CELEBRITY DESIGNERS

Liam Gallagher’s own label Pretty Green was on show and his collection reflects his own sense of style. Every design is subject to his final approval.

The label includes 2 collections, the more tailored black label and the more casual green label.

For the black label :Shirts are either granddad style or narrow button down collars, the signature pattern is paisley with the words “pretty” and “green” incorporated in to the design, colours include greens and purples. The jackets are lined with a monochrome paisley pattern. T-shirts have tone on tone pretty green logos

The Green label is more colourful with contrasting logos on t-shirts.

The signature colour for the logo is black and green; sometimes the green appears in minute detailing if another colour is used such as in the stitching or a tiny decorative button on one cuff.

More subtle logos can be seen on a few of the coats’ buttons.

Men, for help in clothes shopping check out www.frumpytofunky.com or email contact@frumpytofunky.com

Ford’s ‘top Ten’ Gift Ideas for Father’s Day

Father’s Day is coming up fast, have you thought of a nice gift for dad already? Sure helping him fix his car’s Mazda parts would be nice, but how about giving him something new?

If your dad is a Ford fan, he’ll love what Ford has in store for him for his special day. Of course it will be you who’ll actually go out of your way to get him one of these items, but Father’s Day comes just once a year so why not make it special? Your dad certainly deserves the treat.

Below are ten dad-friendly suggestions from The Ford Collection (www.fordcollection.com):

Keep Him Safe: Show dad you care by buying him a Ford Emergency Roadside Bag. The $75 Ford-branded carrying case holds a flashlight, jumper cables, mini air compressor, emergency tire inflator, two bungee cords, pliers, screwdrivers, shop towels, gloves, a rain poncho and a 38-piece first aid kit. There’s even a roll of duct tape. (And dad knows full well duct tape is the solution to any problem, automotive or otherwise.)

Let Him Rock: He sent you to school, so help him enter the school of rock with a new Ford guitar. This Fender® Sonoran acoustic model delivers classic unplugged sound with a stylish blue-burst finish and Ford script. The six string costs $350 and features a solid spruce top, mahogany back and sides, Venetian cutaway, and Stratocaster headstock. Rock on, dad.

Decorate His Den: A treasure trove of poster-ready images chronicling Ford’s history can be found online at Ford ArteHouse through The Ford Collection. From racing heroes to concept cars, Mustangs to Thunderbirds, it’s all there. Prices start at $17.99 and framing is available. Photos of the new Ford Shelby GT500KR are hard to ignore. The car goes on sale next year, but posters are available today.

Empower Him: What dad really needs to get his engine running this Father’s Day is a new engine. Specifically, a 514 cubic-inch, 625-horsepower Ford Racing Performance crate engine. For $8,100, this V-8 monster will show up on his doorstep. Some assembly and installation is required, so make sure you visit www.fordracingparts.com before you buy.

Help Him Be On Time: A wristwatch is a safe bet for gifting. The new, Cobra Leather Strap Watch is a favorite among the many distinctive watches available through The Ford Collection. Priced at $85, the stylishmen’s timepiece features a genuine leather strap and Cobra logo. It is delivered in a stainless steel case and includes luminous hands, date function, and is water resistance up to 100 feet.

Make Him Feel Like a Kid Again: Truthfully, he won’t fit. But even so, dad can appreciate the timeless appeal of a great pedal car. This year, consider a classic ’32 Ford. With prices starting at $249, there are six pedal-car models, including a flame-painted hot rod. The official 75th Anniversary ‘32 Ford Roadster is a great choice and benefits a good cause. For each anniversary model sold, pedal-car maker Warehouse 36 will donate $10 to the Juvenile Diabetes Research Fund.

Make Him Feel Like a Kid Again, Version 2.0: Dozens of die-cast models are available through The Ford Collection, spanning the entire history of Ford Motor Company. Models include a 1913 Ford Model T, a classic Ford F1 pickup, and even a 2006 Ford Fusion. Limited edition is the way to go when your inheritance is on the line, so consider Franklin Mint’s Ford Shelby GT500 die-cast. Only 5,000 will be produced, making it even more rare than the real thing. And prices start at $120, well below the production version.

Fix His Drive: New to The Ford Collection this year is a custom Nike-brand driver with the Ford Blue Oval logo on the grip, an ideal gift for dads that duff. The large head driver delivers high resistance to twisting and the thin-titanium face provides great forgiveness. It slides neatly into any golf bag for just $239.

Beat Him in Pool: Dad loves his rec room and will love it even more with a new pool table handcrafted by Olhausen®, America’s premier manufacturer of professional-quality pool tables. The made-to-order tables are crafted in traditional wood styling of matte mahogany or distressed matte cherry. Each table features unique brass Ford Ovals embedded in the side rails and Ford Script custom carved into the table frame. Mustang-themed tables are offered as well. Prices start at $3,700.

Keep Him Warm: The Ford Collection offers a coat closet full of jackets and fleeces, but your dad is probably Built Ford Tough and should dress the part. Priced at $95, the Built Ford Tough Cheyenne Dri Duck® Jacket is a classic quarry-washed canvas work coat that provides maximum warmth and durability. The hooded jacket will stand up to what dad dishes out, thanks to triple knit stitching, a heavy duty metal zipper, and rib knit cuffs.

The Ford Collection was launched in 1997 and now includes more than 750 unique Ford, Lincoln and Mercury branded items. In all, Ford Motor Company manages one of the largest licensing operations in the world, with more than 300 unique licensees.

Knee High Boot Trends

Never be afraid to be adventurous with your fashion choices. With these top trends in a knee high boot, you will be at the height of fashionable inspiration to everyone you come across. These knee high boot trends will keep you at the top of your game.

Walking is fun. But walking in uncomfortable boots? Not fun. The Potla knee high boot by Jessica Simpson is featured in a lovely muted gray leather. Perfect for spring but dark enough for fall and winter, this knee high boot with a low square heel will keep pain at a minimum but style at an all time maximum. Walk for miles or just walk the block in this beautiful knee high boot. Refined enough for work and exciting enough for a night out, this knee high boot is fashion-forward, practical, and an absolute must have.

Shine on in the Sabrina lovely knee high boot by Oh Deer! Patent leather is so much fun and not just for your rain coat or handbag! In a knee high boot, the bar is raised when constructed with this incredibly chic shiny patent leather. With a stiletto heel, this knee high boot would look of low quality, but with the chunky heel, the wearability of this knee high boot is endless. Divinity in details is perfectly reflected in this knee high boot. Check out the lovely scalloped leather trim around the base of the boot at the heel. A detail only a true shopaholic would admire, this knee high boot is the epitome of unique style.

A knee high boot with a slouch hit the trend circuit about three years ago and made its permanent mark. A knee high boot like the Riley design from Loeffler Randall can be worn with anything. A favorite among celebrities like Cameron Diaz and Hilary Duff, your coolness factor will rise with just a simple slip of your feet into this beautiful knee high boot. With a floral dress you are a lovely bohemian ready to dance the night away at a summer concert. With a pair of riding pants and a slim tank you are a chic equestrian, sans equine. With a slim pair of dark denim jeans and a pressed crisp shirt you are fully prepared for a casual Friday in the office. With the perfect amount of slouch, the perfect height, and absolutely perfect leather, this knee high boot will remind you everyday of its trend longevity.

There are things we want and things we need and the Charlye knee high boot by Golden Goose will remind you that it is entirely possible to need what you want. Though this knee high boot costs a lot of pretty pennies, the quality of this knee high boot will convince you of its worth. Hand made in Italy with beautiful leather, Golden Goose also distresses their leathers to a perfect amount using a top secret procedure. With no knee high boot pair the same, this knee high boot is constructed with the perfect slouch, slight wrinkling, and beautiful metal hardware. This knee high boot will be singing to be worn everyday. As you get dressed every morning, just try to resist its sweet beckoning call. Wear this knee high boot with a great summer dress, your favorite jeans, or even a comfortable pair of cargo shorts and remember… you are worth it.

With these knee high boot trends you will be holding your own in the world of fashion. The great choices above will keep you well equipped for whatever each day has in store for you!